Jesus Christ is the same yesterday, and today, and forever.” This idea does not seem to hold true for the Anglo-Saxon's. 'The Dream of the Rood’ gives us a description of Christ’s Passion, his crucifixion, events leading up to his ascension and ending with comments about Judgement Day. It is given to us in the guise of a wonderful dream, in which the narrator is spoken to directly by the Rood itself.
“Jesus Christ is the same yesterday, and today, and forever.” This idea does not seem to hold true for the Anglo-Saxon's. 'The Dream of the Rood’ gives us a description of Christ’s Passion, his crucifixion, events leading up to his ascension and ending with comments about Judgement Day. It is given to us in the guise of a wonderful dream, in which the narrator is spoken to directly by the Rood itself. According to Michael Swanton, 'The Dream of the Rood' was probably written sometime in the early eighth century, or earlier as he states that the ‘Ruthwell Cross (has) nothing incompatible’ with these dates. Many believe that “…the poem is argued to be of the Cynewulfian School, it is therefore likely to date from the mid ninth century or later.” There seems to be more evidence in favour of the earlier dates. It is the earliest ‘dream’ poem to be written in English. It is written on both the Ruthwell Cross in one version, and within the Vercelli manuscript in another. There is some confusion as to whether it was written by a single author, or added to by a different author after line 78 (though this would mean that the original ended with Christ’s death and did not include his resurrection).
The religion of the Anglo-Saxons changed during the reign of King Oswald between 633ce – 637ce. Little is known of the pagan religion that preceded the coming of Christianity, but we do know that in true Germanic style it was based on the ideals of the heroic. One of the biggest examples of this comes to us in the form of Beowulf. Strength, courage, vigour, honour, loyalty to kin, and reverence for ancestors, were highly regarded in the Anglo-Saxon heroic society, though almost nothing of what happens in the afterlife of these pagans is known. We are not given any clues by Anglo-Saxon literature to what these beliefs may be. Even in Beowulf, after Scyld Scefing’s death, we are told that it was unknown where his spirit would go. This might lead us to conclude that the Anglo-Saxon’s did not have their own ‘Valhalla’ for their brave warriors, which is supported by A. J. Barnouw, ‘The Anglo-Saxon's did not know the proud certainty of entrance into the paradise of fallen heroes which the Scandinavians called Valhalla’ (though this may simply be because Scyld Scefing was not killed in battle). This unknown is also highlighted by one of King Edwin’s chief witan in his speech about the sparrow when he said ‘…what went before this life or what follows, we know nothing.’ This uncertainty about what happens after death is a strong reason for the Anglo-Saxon uptake of Christianity.
The only problem with taking on Christianity as a new religion would be that it was so alien to a warrior society that prides itself on military prowess and heroic ideals. When King Oswald converted the Anglo-Saxon’s to Christianity through Bishop Aidan, it was through instruction and preaching rather than through dictatorship. As the Anglo-Saxon's had previously been converted to Christianity in 596 during King Ethelbert’s reign, it is important to note how quickly the people returned to paganism. Significantly, there is evidence to suggest that 'The Dream of the Rood' was written between 50 – 150 years after Aiden’s work. It addresses the problem of explaining the Bible in terms that the Anglo-Saxon’s could easily recognise, possibly to prevent further apostasy. It operates many levels, and would be recognised by the Anglo-Saxon's without difficulty. With the Anglo-Saxon’s rich oral and literary tradition based on the heroic, the author of 'The Dream of the Rood' has skilfully given an easily recognisable picture of Christ in the new faith of Christianity. With the prominent nature given to the Cross we can clearly see evidence that it’s own cult was spreading across Anglo-Saxon Britain.
One of the first departures from biblical accounts of Christ’s Passion is the image of the Cross, when it first appears. It is not initially described as a cross, but as a tree, which could be in reference to biblical account such as Acts V: 30 “…hanging Him upon a tree”, which is also present in the books of Galatians and Peter, or to the Tree of Life in Genesis and Revelations, with strong parallels in many pagan religions. The fact that the tree is ‘begoten mid golde; gimmas stodon’ could be our first reference to the image of the Rood as Christ’s weapon. Often in Anglo-Saxon's heroic literature, and with the riddles in the Exeter Book, weapons are given personalities. The physical image of a cross is very similar to that of a sword, which was often given personalities. Famous swords such as Hrunting, belonging to Beowulf, became symbols of power and kingship. Similarly the Rood becomes the symbol of Christ’s kingly power. This would explain the extravagant appearance of the Rood, as powerful swords were “personified as loyal retainers (and as such were) entitled to receive treasures as the symbol of their service. This takes the form of gold and gems with which they are adorned.” This also gives us the combined images of the Rood as Christ’s retainer, and Christ as the Ring-Giver and lord. The fact that five gems in particular are mentioned may allude to the five wounds of Christ on His feet, hands and side, and is mentioned by B.F. Huppé . It is also interesting that Huppé translates line 15 ‘wædum geweorðod / as “robed in purple” . Though I have not seen this elsewhere I do find it interesting, as this would be a direct link to John XIX: 5 where Christ is depicted in robes of this colour as a mockery to his royal title. The Cross adorned with would relieve Christ and instead, impose the scorn upon the Rood. This theme is also emphasised soon afterwards when the tree is seen to bleed from its right side. This again refers to the book of John in chapter XIX: 34, “But one of the soldiers with a spear opened his side, and immediately there came out blood and water.” This heavily shifts the burden of humiliation from Christ and is a recurring theme throughout the poem. We are also told that the Rood changes from being encrusted with gold and gems to being covered with blood. There are many levels upon which this works but one important aspect is the recurrence of the analogy of the cross as Christ’s weapon, “…bloodstained in use and bejewelled when honoured as a possession.” This would give an Anglo-Saxon audience a very visual image with which they could easily identify. As the sword was the weapon of the lords and highly decorated warriors, with most people using spears for combat (obviously made of wood), the image of Christ as a powerful warrior is already highlighting His heroism that is so admired by the Germanic tribes. The cross is also gaining in reverence as a highly regarded weapon of choice used only by the elite.
A few lines further we are finally addressed by the Rood itself. This is not unusual in Anglo-Saxon poetry and is a major part in the riddles from the Exeter Book. Besides the semi humanisation of the Rood, there are also other links with this kind of literature. The description that the tree gives us of being uprooted in the forest is very similar to some of the items in this book. For example, the descriptions of the spear and the battering ram, which begin life in a very similar way. The spear’s riddle begins “Ic on wonge aweox, / wunode þær mec feddon / hruse ond heofonwolcn, / oþþæt me onhwyrfdon (I grew in the ground, nourished by earth / And cloud-until grim enemies came)” . As a recognisable element of much extant Anglo-Saxon literature, and transformed into a more religious idiom, the style of 'The Dream of the Rood' could easily entice further reading and would have been extremely palatable to a contemporary audience.
The Rood goes on to tell its listener how it came to the site of Christ’s execution. As Christ is yet to be depicted, the most interesting aspect here is in the mode that the Rood comes to arrive at Golgotha. Neither Simon of Cyrene nor Christ himself is expected to shoulder the burden as in Mathew XXVII: 32 or John XIX: 17. Rather it is left to the many enemies to struggle and erect the Cross. We are now, at lines 33 – 34 finally given a brief description of Christ. He is described as hastening and eager for his crucifixion. The Rood goes on to say how Christ, expressed as a young warrior, strong and resolute, strips himself to climb the Cross. One important word used on line 39, the verb ‘ongyrede’ “is similar to the ‘gyrede’…of warriors arming themselves for battle” with an example in Beowulf on line 1441b, ‘gyrede hine Beowulf.’ (Beowulf armed / prepared himself). Also similar to Beowulf, Christ is described as the ‘powerful King’. This is in stark contrast to the picture given to us in the Gospels and transforms Jesus into an obviously heroic saviour. As He is depicted as an active part of the crucifixion, fervently approaching a battle, Christ’s bravery and heroism would command great respect and loyalty from a warlike Germanic culture. Consistent with E. Irving’s comment of Germanic society as a “society that was dedicated to aggressive behaviour and the strutting niceties of personal honour.” , Christ has been transformed into a mighty warrior in the vein of Beowulf and is no longer the “Passover Lamb” from Luke XXII: 7. This also has strong mirrors with the Norse god Odin, purposefully hanging himself on the tree World Tree, Yggdrasil. It was from this that Odin, or Woden to the Anglo-Saxon's, discovered the secret of life and much like Jesus Christ, Transformed into a higher god. In the case of Jesus, transforming from Jesus the man, into Christ the God, which is the central them of the whole poem as well as the original Gospels themselves. Here the Rood also expresses its nature in a similar mode to Christ. It also describes itself in warrior tones, as being able to destroy all the enemies, again reminiscent of the Anglo-Saxon riddles, though this time more like the sword of riddle 20. The Cross obviously considers itself capable of great feats of strength but must conform to the will of the lord. The devotion that the Cross shows to Christ, and its need or willingness to obey His command shows itself as acting “…like an Anglo-Saxon retainer in the service of a secular lord.” When the Rood later addresses the narrator, who in turn addresses the audience, we can see that the spectators are expected to act like vassals of Christ. The notion of serving God and Christ, as thanes to a supreme feudal lord must have been a very strong argument for any new Anglo-Saxon converts to the religion of Christianity. The Cross, now regarded as one of Christ’s first retainers has also now justified its own worship, which the poem emphasises later on. Again and again the Rood reiterates how it stood firm for Christ, and allowed him the victory of Crucifixion. It would have been a very difficult situation for any retainer to allow their lord to be killed, as the notion of vengeance had obvious implications for the Germanic tribes. The very tensions of a warrior society embracing Christianity are here revealed to the audience with, which seems to be, the author telling us ‘here’s how we justify following Christ.’
Many times we are told of the anguish that the Rood is made to endure. From being uprooted, being made into a spectacle and having masses of fortitude to follow Christ’s will. We have heard of the blood that pours from the Tree’s side and now we are told of further physical injuries. We are now informed about ‘dark nails’ that penetrate the Cross and later are made aware of the Rood’s wounding from arrows. One of the possible reasons that we are given this information is, again, to remove any embarrassment and weakness from Christ. Michael Swanton translates this as “With the agony transferred to the cross, Christ can sensibly be seen to rule from the gallows.” To accentuate this, Jesus is only described as being mocked once, and even at this time, it is shared with the Cross. The ‘cruel effects of fate’ are also exclusively attributed to the Cross. Almost certain that this is what the poet intended, the reference to the arrows strengthens the idea of Christ and the Rood in battle and would be a very powerful metaphor for Christian Heroism.
Some aspects of the crucifixion cannot be changed. Christ must die here for any belief in his holy power and his subsequent resurrection. Even here however there can be a heroic twist. Differing to Mathew XXVII: 50 ‘And Jesus cried again with a loud voice and yielded up his spirit.’ the Christ in 'The Dream of the Rood' ‘sent forth his spirit.’ Though the difference here is subtle, we see that the Anglo-Saxons Jesus’ death is “here made active on his part” . The description gives us the notion that Christ is far from being defeated and when in the final Act of Passion, Christ’s wounding by the spear, ‘In his holy blood…the Cross is consecrated.” With Christ’s death, the Rood has grown even stronger in reverence and is at last allowed to bend down in its sorrow. An array of warriors comes to weep over His dead body. Only the Rood recognises that He is not truly dead. There is no Joseph of Arimathea or Mary Magdalene to take Jesus’ body to an unused tomb. Instead we have warriors and thanes constructing an elaborate sepulchre for the Lord of Victories, underscoring Christ’s triumph over his enemies. These Thanes are also laid-claim to by the Anglo-Saxons. “His followers are followers who bury their dead lord and sing a dirge for him as Beowulfs followers do.” During this time, before Christ’s resurrection, we can assume that Jesus is enduring the Harrowing of Hell due to the narrator, later telling us that ‘Hope was renewed with joy and bliss for those who endured the fire of Hell.’ The narrator reiterates Christ’s heroism on many occasions.
The crux of the later part of the poem is that of sermonizing for the worship of such a valiant hero. The honour and veneration that Christ gives to the Tree gives the Anglo-Saxon audience a powerful motive for pursuing the Adoration of the Cross. Through this adoration we are told not to fear Judgement Day as long as the True Cross is strong in the hearts of those who intend to dwell with Christ in heaven. The feasting described here is also similar to the great mead-halls of a battle lord or, maybe, even Valhalla. We are lead to believe that this is the true home of the righteous and so we are given another strong indicator of a society in transition.
Exile is often covered in Anglo-Saxon poetry and stories, such as the Wanderer, and it was a strong part of Germanic culture. The Narrator of 'The Dream of the Rood' “…must follow the Cross in living the life of an exile, longing for the native land.” One final example of transformation may be taken from the previous religion. Though we know little about the Anglo-Saxon pagan religion, we can be confident that there was a high regard for nature including, importantly to us, trees. Besides Yggdrasil, already described, one such veneration for wood and trees has come to us in the form of the ‘Lay of the Nine Twigs of Wodon’. In this story “ the pieces of wood provide the seed for the herbs which will be capable of healing mankind.” There are also other stories relating to trees and their powers, including averting death, curing death, Causing death (in the form of ash spears) and so on, and it could be assumed that many surviving Norse stories relating to wood would have been mirrored in Anglo-Saxon paganism. For the Anglo-Saxon's to transform their position of worship to that of the Tree of Victory would have been a relatively natural step for them.
The author of 'The Dream of the Rood’ has very skilfully managed to blend the comparatively new ideas of Christianity into a rich history of heroic sagas and song. It can be argued that depicting Christ as a warrior, should be “regarded variously as evidence of an artistic limitation imposed by oral tradition” but I do not believe this to be true. Many of the ideals held by other Christians would have been extremely unpalatable to the Anglo-Saxon's. A weak and feeble ‘King of the Jews’ who allowed himself to be ridiculed and tormented by his oppressors has been expertly transformed into a mighty heroic figure that even manages to outshine Beowulf and Woden. It gives us the impression that Christ is an almighty king who is bound to serve his thanes and people, as they are bound to serve him. Again and again the author portrays Christ as the epitome of youthful and royal heroic prowess, while at the same time removing any semblance of oppression from him. Although the Rood bears the Brunt of these injuries, it does so stoically, and as such a resolute and faithful retainer of Christ earns the respect and adoration due to any mighty heroes weapon. If Christ is even more powerful than Beowulf, then the Rood is even stauncher than Hrunting. The Cross is adeptly transformed from a symbol of defeat to a symbol of resounding triumph. The Anglo-Saxon's, with such a rich and commanding sense of oral heroic tradition, could readily identify with this unassailable figure. 'The Dream of the Rood' offers us “A fruitful wedding of (Anglo-Saxon) heroic tradition to a Christian subject…” The skill and craft of its author is truly amazing. The self-aware nature of the poem suggests to me that there were many who doubted their new religion. The elements of Christ’s Passion would have been well known to them, but here, in a brilliantly crafted poem, this Passion has been transformed in such a way as to renew people’s faith and validate their new belief. Some of the raw ingredients for this are in other Christian doctrines. For instance, in St. Jerome’s preface to the Bible he states that “No less commendable is the man strong in compunction than the man strong in battle.” The Adoration of the Cross is also mentioned in Corinthians and other New Testament books, but it takes a true artist and an amazing poem to transform these ideas and ideals into a form that would be willingly accepted by a war-loving race